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This Day in History presents story snippets across the world from different years on the fourteenth day of October. A Push for Irish Independence "Athenry Station in the Mid Nineteenth Century." Chetham's Library, via Wikimedia Commons On this day in 1882 in Ireland, journalists reported on the proceedings of a county convention held in Athenry, Galway. The convention itself took place the day prior, but many residents, landowners, and businesses of the County of Galway had much to say on the matter of the future of their county and their people—even after the convention adjourned. Despite the wide array of industries and livelihood being represented during the convention, no members of the local clergy attended that day. Regardless of their absence, no known adjustments were made to the convention. Several disgruntled residents voiced their concerns over an alleged lack of proper representation and support for farmers and the agriculture industry as a whole within Galway. Some went far as to claim that "Captain Nolan and Mr. Mitchell Henry, members of Parliament for County Galway, had both forfeited the confidence of the electors." In addition to agrarian representation, residents also focused on Irish national independence as a topic of discussion. While Ireland did not gain independence that year, residents of Galway County claimed a small victory in improving the freedoms of farmers. Certain laws imposed by Britain prevented numerous Irish farmers from cultivating anything other than grass, which perpetuated a cycle of poverty that occurred too commonly among rural Irish residents. The convention reached resolutions of focusing on "the land for the people," which allowed for a reduction in the number of grass farms and an increase in profitable crops. Captain Hook in India Thomas Daniell, via Wikimedia Commons On this day in 1805, the Vice President and Deputy Governor of Fort William, Calcutta (now Kolkata), West Bengal, India, appointed Captain Lionel Hook as officiating Military Secretary to the Government of India. Captain Hook already worked as Secretary to the Government of India prior to this appointment, and this appointment as officiator primarily functioned as announcing other appointments by order of the Government. While this may not seem rather significant, it provides a look into the operations of the East India Company and their military influence in India. Fort William, prior to Indian independence, served as not only a means of defending their trading interests from Indian and European belligerents, but also as a military base. During Captain Hook's appointment as Secretary to the Government of India, the East India Company's grip had tightened on local residents, which allowed for tax collection and thus more funds funneled for British interests and control. Captain Hook himself served with the East India Company for several years, with many of those acting as Secretary. Outside of his appointment announcements in The Bengal Hurkaru, an English language newspaper covering the goings-on in Bengal and occasionally other parts of India and the world, Captain Hook and the majority of other officers and soldiers never received written gratitude for service via the Hurkaru. This "commendation" came in the form of paychecks. Yellow Fever "Yellow Fever Death List." Public Ledger, Library of Congress On this day in 1878, consumers of the Public Ledger in Memphis, Tennessee on October 14 would have read a list of recent deaths that took place within the local area over the past few weeks. The culprit—Yellow Fever. An epidemic of Yellow Fever swept across the United States, claiming hundreds and possibly thousands of lives. Several cases all across the city and state appeared virtually at random, with one or two-sentence paragraphs reporting on individuals with new cases of "the fever." While not every town or possibly even every state reported of cases of Yellow Fever within their respected territories, the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 certainly caused quite a stir and an unfortunate death toll. Within the Ledger, we see reactions to the epidemic and how many individuals took precautions to prevent the spread of illness. One such example is the business of B. Lowenstein and Bros. To protect not only themselves but also their wholesale goods, they temporarily moved locations to Louisville, Kentucky, where cases of Yellow Fever were not so prevalent. An announcement of their temporary relocation was published in the October 14 edition of the Ledger. Soon the epidemic would die down and cases would drop, but this would not be the last Yellow Fever epidemic within the United States. Sources: "More Movements." The Sedalia Weekly Bazoo (Sedalia, MO), Oct. 17 1882. https://www.loc.gov/item/sn90061066/1882-10-17/ed-1/. "The Men of Galway." Redpath's Illustrated Weekly (New York City, NY), Oct. 25 1882. https://digital.library.villanova.edu/Item/vudl:222418#?c=&m=&s=&cv=1&xywh=968%2C249%2C3133%2C1348 Athenry Station in the Mid Nineteenth Century. Chathem's Library, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Athenry_Station_in_the_mid_nineteenth_century.jpg. University of London; London, England; Bengal Calendar - Hon'ble and United East India Company's Civil and Military Servants on the Bengal Establishment; Reference Number: B33516352 "General Orders." Bengal Hurkaru. (Calcutta, India), Nov. 5 1805. https://www.loc.gov/item/sn88063570/. Daniell, Thomas. Fort William, River Face, in 1787, After Daniell. 1787, engraving, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Fort_William_plate17.jpg "Yellow Fever Death List." Public Ledger (Memphis, TN), Oct. 14 1878. https://www.loc.gov/item/sn85033673/1878-10-14/ed-1/.

“August 1947 heralded a new world order. It was the beginning of the end of the British Empire. The country’s mighty rule over nearly 400 million people on the Indian subcontinent was over. But it was to close shambolically, hastily, and catastrophically.” - Kavita Puri In mid-August of 1947, a young girl named Hameeda returned to school after receiving time off in observance of the independence days of India and Pakistan. She rode a small yet reliable bike from home to a modestly sized building, parked her bike, and walked inside. Upon arrival to her classroom, she noticed that many of the seats where her classmates once sat remained empty even after her teacher commenced with morning lessons. Once a full and lively place the week prior, now less than twenty students remained. She didn't remember the specifics of what was taught that day. Rather, she recalled the atmosphere feeling distinguishably different. At only eleven years old, Hameeda was aware of Partition, but soon she would witness its devastating impact—especially to women. Colonial Context To understand the importance of Indian-Pakistani independence in 1947 and how it was both great and terrible, we must first touch on British colonization. European nations during the Early Modern era looked to other non-Christian and non-European countries as opportunities for trade, conversion, colonization, and—in the most extreme cases—assimilation. Upon arrival to India, many English soldiers greatly admired and respected the Indian people. Some opposed any form of assimilation and others felt inclined to abandon their foothold in India altogether, despite the profits. However, the historical narrative shows that these sentiments did not last long. As the British Empire gained more wealth from the Indian subcontinent, they gradually increased labor and resource strains on the Indian people. Britain also found themselves in a power struggle between other European superpowers such as France, and sought to remove them from territory they desired. In 1757, Britain emerged victorious from the Battle of Plassey. This short yet impactful skirmish has been considered by many historians as the turning point of British colonialism in India. After the Battle of Plassey, the British Empire continued their expansion of economic, political, and military control in India. Painted depiction of a sepoy (Indian soldier serving British interests) with an Indian woman, Wellcome Collection, JSTOR In 1857, roughly ninety years before the events of Partition, the Indian subcontinent roared with warfare. Hindus and Muslims united together in an attempt to overthrow the chokehold that the British Empire held through the East India Company. Caste systems that for countless generations segregated people of certain statuses crumbled in the name of independence. Many Indian citizens wanted to return to traditional life and society before the arrival of the Europeans. Britain returned every blow it received with equal if not more powerful force. They didn't want to lose their most valuable asset—the "crown jewel" of their global empire. By the following year, 1858, the British successfully snuffed out the flames of rebellion and officially took control of India under the rule of the British Raj. While it appeared as the beginning of a new era for the Britain and India, it in fact was the beginning of the end for British rule and the end of amiable relations between many Indian Hindus and Muslims. In an effort to maintain control of India, Britain implemented perhaps their most powerful weapon: identity. With this weapon, the roughly ninety years of Indian life under the British Raj guaranteed control, but this foundation began showing cracks just as soon as it settled. Indian castes returned and religious discrimination regained a foothold. Civil unrest never truly died but rather hid itself for moments at a time. Identities that once distinguished themselves as cultural and ethnic gradually distorted into religious identifiers. As the world welcomed the twentieth century, so too did they welcome new ideologies and soon new political parties. The Islamic faith constituted the largest religious minority in India during the twentieth century, and many Muslims felt this affected their political representation. The Indian National Congress, among other political parties, dominated the political scene within the Indian-controlled portion of government. However, there was an absence of a Muslim-majority party. Major steps were made during the nineteenth century, and in the first decade of the twentieth century, Muslims across India finally achieved their own political voice. The All-India Muslim League was the answer to finding representation and political power. The League's popular solution to discrimination and unrest was the creation of a new nation by which an Islamic—instead of a secular—government was at the center. Pakistan While India saw moments of peace and improved Hindu-Muslim relations during the reign of the British Raj, many factors including the Raj's implementation of identity politics prevented long-term unity. While prominent All-India Muslim League leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah initially sought for unity between Hindus and Muslims, he gradually abandoned that goal as conditions worsened over time. Other leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi actively opposed the splitting of India to create the new Islamic nation, Pakistan. By the 1940s, tensions between Hindus, Muslims, and other minority groups were at an all-time high. Riots, skirmishes, and massacres plagued the Indian subcontinent. The bloodbaths of Calcutta and Noakhali collectively resulted in thousands of deaths. The British Raj's grip on the Indian people gradually weakened and soon delegates held discussions of independence. The All-India Muslim League agreed to cooperate under the condition that their wishes of the creation of Pakistan were met. By 1947, the very same year that young Hameeda entered a near-empty classroom, Britain appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten to oversee the transfer of power from the Raj to the Indian people. On June 3rd, Mountbatten announced that the official dissolution of the British Raj and thereby the independence of India would take place on August 15th, 1947. That very same day, the Partition between Pakistan and India would also take place. Women as Weapons August 15th, 1947, marked the end of the colonial era and the beginning of independence. The nationwide violence mixed with only a couple months of preparation for Partition resulted in high tension and abandoned homes. While some, like Hameeda and her family, chose to remain in their then-present residence, upwards of twenty million people left many of their belongings behind to cross to the "safer" side of this new international border. Hindus living within the borders of the newly-formed Pakistan made their way Southeast, while Muslims traveled Northwest. Thirst, hunger, exposure, and widespread violence resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of traveling civilians. While weapons can work as a physical object or a purposeful concept, perhaps one of the most destructive and vile weapons during Partition was harming women of opposing religious affiliations. Women in many ways endured the most hardship before, during, and after Partition. Patriarchal structures were rather common and in many ways are still present within Hindu and Muslim sects in South Asia. Both women and men held certain responsibilities and roles, but women typically held less power in the religious, cultural, and political sectors of everyday life. Because of these power imbalances and skewed perceptions of women as the "weaker" sex, disgruntled and violently loathful men on both sides saw opportunities to express and demonstrate their religious hatred. Countless women suffered through countless acts of violent rage, with many losing their lives. Just as Hindu men attacked Muslim women, Muslim men did the same to Hindu women. Physical brutality only seemed to satisfy some belligerents, while others wanted to mentally and emotionally break Hindu or Muslim women. Men engaged in religiously motivated acts of sexual assault against innocent women. Not only did this completely destroy the morale of the woman, but it also resembled an extremely destructive method where a man could outwardly and mentally express his abhorrence for an opposing religion. While young Hameeda did not become a victim of sexual assault or physical violence, she would soon meet many Muslim survivors of such vile acts. A Hospital for Women In August of 1947, Hameeda and her family lived in Hyderabad, Sindh, on the Northwest side of the Indian subcontinent. While Hameeda was aware of Partition, she noted that it still came as a surprise to her and her family. Hyderabad ended up on the Pakistani side of the newly-drawn border, which resulted in many Hindu families in the area packing whatever they could carry and heading to India. Instead of moving to India, Hameeda's family decided to stay. Hyderabad was already relatively peaceful before Partition, and Hameeda's father worked as a well-established judge. The very same month that Hameeda noticed the relatively empty classroom, she also witnessed droves of Muslim refugees arriving on trains to Hyderabad. Exhausted, battered, bleeding, and crying men, women, and children emptied out of the train cars, with nowhere to stay or receive help. Some attempted to establish themselves in Hyderabad and Sindh, while others continued further into Pakistan. Upon witnessing the state of the refugees, Hameeda's grandmother quickly took action to provide shelter and healthcare. She found an abandoned house with several rooms and, with prior experience and knowledge of midwifery, converted the house into a hospital. Shortly thereafter, she recruited Hameeda to help with daily operations and with assisting any newly-arrived refugees. While the hospital was open to both men and women, Hameeda recounted seeing a greater ratio of women to men arriving through the front door. “I remember a woman who was wearing all in red clothes… and she had a big gash here, and she had just got married…and they got into the train and her husband had been killed.” - Hameeda Hossain Hameeda Hossain took pity on the condition of this woman and many like her and helped them quite often during the Partition migrations. Despite the senseless violent acts against the refugees, Hameeda, her grandmother, and any other volunteers provided examples of upstanding, caring, and headstrong women that provided asylum and comfort for survivors of religious violence, sexual assault, and starvation. Hameeda Hossain to this day works as a human rights activist against injustices that women and other groups continue to face in South Asia. To learn more about her experience during Partition, watch the video below, published by the 1947 Partition Archive. Sources: “Dr. Hameeda Hossain lived in Hyderabad, Sindh, during 1947.” YouTube, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=atnunRcF-do. Saxena, Chandni. “ON RELIGION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON WOMEN DURING PARTITION OF INDIA.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 75 (2014): 1253–71. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44158517. Puri, Kavita. Partition Voices: Updated for the 75th Anniversary of Partition. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019. Pati, Biswamoy. “Historians and Historiography: Situating 1857.” Economic and Political Weekly 42, no. 19 (2007): 1686–91. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4419570. A Sepoy in the Service of the East India Company, with a Woman (Courtesan?) On the Right. Gouache, 18--. n.d. Gouache, with gold ;, image and border 36.8 x 26.3 cm. Wellcome Collection. https://jstor.org/stable/community.24901928. Rajan, M. S. “The Impact of British Rule in India.” Journal of Contemporary History 4, no. 1 (1969): 89–102. http://www.jstor.org/stable/259793. Habib, Irfan. “Towards a Political Economy of Colonialism.” Social Scientist 45, no. 3/4 (2017): 9–15. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26380342. Robinson, Francis. “The British Empire and Muslim Identity in South Asia.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 8 (1998): 271–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/3679298. KRISHAN, Y. “MOUNTBATTEN AND THE PARTITION OF INDIA.” History 68, no. 222 (1983): 22–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24418393.

Van Deman Collection, JSTOR If a tourist traveled to Tunisia today, they would be greeted with incredible scenery, rich culture, and French influence within a predominantly Islamic nation. However, if one were to visit cities such as Carthage and El Jem, they might be surprised to find Roman ruins. Indeed, at the peak of the Roman Empire's reign, Roman soldiers were stationed as North as England and as South as Egypt. Apart from their vast empire, the Romans are still famous to this day due to their advanced architecture and technology. Incredibly durable concrete, aqueducts, and strong arches just name a few of many Roman technological achievements. Carthage, Tunisia, for example, is home to the remains of a once powerful and highly prized Roman city. The Romans took Carthage via warfare from the Phoenicians during the Third Punic War, later transforming the coastal city into a trading and architectural hotspot. Many impressive buildings were erected in the Roman style, and large cisterns stored water from aqueducts and rainfall. Even after the Roman Empire collapsed, remnants of their influence stood the test of time. Societies throughout Europe and North Africa built around ruins and continued on with their lives. North Africa in particular is home to several sites of these Roman ruins, full of art and architecture created centuries ago. An entire book could be written on the people residing within these cities, their culture, and the roles each city played within the Roman Empire. For the sake of brevity, we will focus on the amphitheater at El Jem in Tunisia. Matching One's Grandeur Buildings and artworks such as mosaics and amphitheaters not only had importance in functionality and cultural expression. They also served as a means of boasting power, wealth, and ingenuity. This practice of having artworks and structures as an outward expression of one's wealth and influence was rather common among emperors, kings, and even nobility within Europe. As a matter of fact, even the Roman Catholic Church hired many well-known artists during the Medieval and Renaissance eras as a means of showing their political power, the scope of their riches, and their devotion to God. Just as some empires and kingdoms boasted their power and wealth, others coveted and sought to destroy significant structures and artworks. Because of this, other amphitheaters were not as fortunate as El Jem's amphitheater and the Colosseum. The Roman Empire also participated in destroying their enemies' cities and edifices. They saw the construction of hundreds of amphitheaters and other functional forms of architecture, and the subsequent destruction at the hands of other kingdoms and empires. Thysdrus ARTSTOR Collection, JSTOR Roman concrete helped preserve Roman architecture in Europe, and the same composite kept the amphitheater at El Jem in good condition despite its exposure to warfare and the elements. The amphitheater itself stands tall in the center of El Jem, surrounded by a beautiful sprawl of bright buildings and olive trees as far as the eye can see. The amphitheater itself was constructed around the second or third century C.E. and completed in the mid-third century. Incredibly, the entire structure is composed of stone blocks with no foundation. This freestanding building is a testament to Roman technological ingenuity. The amphitheater at El Jem is roughly the 12th largest surviving Roman amphitheater, with the Roman Colosseum at the top. Despite not making the top five or ten, it still towers over the surrounding cityscape and olive groves. At this time, Rome referred to the city and surrounding area as Thysdrus. Even over one thousand years ago the sprawls of olive trees encircled the amphitheater and other structures. Like the Colosseum, the Thysdrus (El Jem) amphitheater served as a center for mass entertainment. Events held in Roman amphitheaters appealed to locals, passersby, and all other walks of life. Forms of entertainment within their walls ranged from violent battles to athletic competitions. Thysdrus was also a part of a vast network of Roman trade routes that spanned all across Tunisia and conjoined into just a couple of main roads through the Sahara. The olive trees around the city provided additional value to Thysdrus. Olive oil was regularly exported around and outside of Tunisia, and still continues to be El Jem's primary export. While the Romans perhaps deemed the port city Carthage the most valuable North African city in the Roman Empire, Thysdrus easily became a popular location due to its grand amphitheater and olive groves. A Berber's Last Stand Even after the Roman Empire fell and other empires and kingdoms retook or conquered North Africa, the amphitheater remained. One such conquering involved a raging war between the Arabs and the Berbers. Many historians speculate that Kahina—queen of the Berbers during the seventh century C.E.—established and fortified the Thysdrus amphitheater as one of her army's last battles against the Arabs. Upon their arrival to Thysdrus, Kahina ordered her remaining loyal tribes to cut down the surrounding olive trees. Whether her intentions for this order involved utilizing the trees for fortifications or depreciating the value of the land for the encroaching Arabs remains unclear. One can only speculate the thoughts that went through Kahina's mind during her final living moments. Hassan ibn al-Nu'man, a general within the Arab army that aided in the conquering and control of Tunisia, arrived to Thysdrus and beheld the sight of the fortified amphitheater. He demanded Kahina's surrender and conversion to the Islamic faith, but she refused and fought alongside her fellow warriors. She, accompanied by some of the surviving Berbers, soon fled from the amphitheater and traveled west, where the Arabs pursued and slayed her. While the Arabs succeeded in taking over Thysdrus and all of Tunisia, Kahina's story and her last major stand in the Thysdrus amphitheater still resonates with feminists and other admiring individuals around the world. A Thousand Stories, a Thousand More Van Deman Collection, JSTOR In 1979, UNESCO declared the amphitheater at El Jem a World Heritage site. Prior to UNESCO's inscription, it was considered an archaeological site and fell under the protection of watchmen and other individuals that wanted to preserve the remains of the amphitheater. While locals removed some stones for the purpose of constructing domiciles and other buildings, the practice soon ceased, and the majority of the Roman edifice remains intact. The story of the Berber queen Kahina is only one of many that took place within the city limits of El Jem. The amphitheater itself provided several purposes throughout the centuries and still serves as a reminder of the once expansive reach of the Roman Empire. This freestanding structure saw the rise and fall of The Romans, the Berbers, and many other groups and empires; under proper protection, it will continue to bear testament to the innovations of peoples from the age of antiquity. Sources: "Amphitheatre of El Jem." UNESCO. accessed on March 8, 2023. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/38/ Benario, Herbert W. “Amphitheatres of the Roman World.” The Classical Journal 76, no. 3 (1981): 255–58. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3297328. Count Byron Khun de Prorok. “Ancient Trade Routes from Carthage into the Sahara.” Geographical Review 15, no. 2 (1925): 190–205. https://doi.org/10.2307/208470. Humphrey, John H., and John Griffiths Pedley. “Roman Carthage.” Scientific American 238, no. 1 (1978): 110–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24955619. Lea M. Stirling. “A New Portrait of Livia from Thysdrus (El Jem, Tunisia).” American Journal of Archaeology 116, no. 4 (2012): 625–47. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.116.4.0625. Rodd, Francis. “Kahena, Queen of the Berbers: ‘A Sketch of the Arab Invasion of Ifrikiya in the First Century of the Hijra.’” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London 3, no. 4 (1925): 729–46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/607085. Thysdrus (El Djem): Amphitheater: Aerial View. late 2nd C. A.D. https://jstor.org/stable/community.13909600. Van Deman, Esther Boise, 1862-1937. [Modern Village of El-Jem (Tunisia) near the Roman Amphitheater of Thysdrus]. March 1913. https://jstor.org/stable/community.32078013. Van Deman, Esther Boise, 1862-1937. [Thysdrus (Tunisia), the Watchman of the Archaeological Site on a Seat of the Amphitheater]. March 1913. https://jstor.org/stable/community.32077850. Wilkins, Peter I. “Amphitheatres and Private Munificence in Roman Africa: A New Text from Thuburnica.” Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 75 (1988): 215–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20186974.

University of Arkansas In 1968, an African American student residing in Fayetteville, Arkansas sent a letter to the Arkansas Traveler—a local newspaper at the University of Arkansas—in an attempt to have their letter published in one of the Traveler's next issues. This letter contained their concerns about all the published letters sent by white students that criticized the amount of attention Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's recent assassination had been receiving in news media. The editors from the Traveler replied with a letter addressing their concerns, but did so through explaining why they would not publish the black student's letter. While the editors of the Traveler felt the matter was resolved with their response, the racially-charged wording within their reply sparked the beginning of an incredibly influential group known as Black Americans for Democracy. Black students were a small and slowly growing demographic within the University of Arkansas's student body during much of the late-twentieth century. Despite receiving official integration through the university, the reality of the situation remained rather grim. The Traveler's defense of publishing racist letters against mourning Dr. King's death was just the tip of the iceberg. The black community's representation within local media was practically nonexistent or racist, and black students at the University of Arkansas soon decided to take matters and representation into their own hands. The BAD Times ". . . Black Americans for Democracy is a campus organization for students, faculty, and staff members. . . organized to: (1) provide a focus for Black students. 2) Make all phases of student life relevant to Black people. 3) Provide a link of communication between the Black students and the campus administrators, state officers, and the surrounding community leaders. 4) Employ any honorable and feasible methods to make campus life meaningful for every student at the University of Arkansas." - Carey Owens Among some of their first newspapers in the early 1970s, Black Americans for Democracy published under the name The BAD Times. It was a rather fitting double meaning, and the black student body finally felt seen after so many years of taking a backseat in American history and politics. Throughout the decade, they changed their newspaper name at least twice—Black Americans for Democracy News and TIMES (Black Americans for Democracy)—to better communicate their intentions and goals to the public. Through their first newspaper publications, B.A.D. articles focused on the injustices that black students experienced firsthand on campus. In other articles, they wrote powerful and emotional pieces about the frustrations of the continued segregation and racism they experienced on a daily basis. B.A.D. also utilized their newspaper as a means of announcing meetings and properly representing their community. As the number of black students at the University of Arkansas grew throughout the 1970s, so too did the number of B.A.D. events. They held B.A.D. student body elections for president, vice president, secretary, treasurer, and other roles on an annual basis. B.A.D. leaders regularly conducted meetings to encourage active community outreach. B.A.D. held their own fashion shows, beauty pageants, and many other events that boosted the morale and unity of black students and faculty. Soon, B.A.D. gained enough local and national traction that they held a Black Awareness Week with leaders such as Dana C. Chandler invited to speak. University of Arkansas Coed involvement was major part of the foundation of Black Americans for Democracy. Their annual beauty pageant, known as the Miss B.A.D. Pageant, was especially unique to the B.A.D. organization. While it simply could be dismissed as another run-of-the-mill competition for prizes and publicity, Miss B.A.D. took on a much greater role. The winner received the role as the female representative for B.A.D. in other events and settings outside of the organization. In fact, B.A.D. felt this role was so valuable as representation that they emphasized its national importance. Miss B.A.D. became the face of the organization where men's influence could not reach. Taking a STAND Just as The BAD Times had name changes, so too did its publisher. In 1979, B.A.D. adopted a new name—Students Taking A New Dimension, or S.T.A.N.D. for short. Despite the adjustment to the organization's vision and title, the majority of services and events available for black students remained, such as Black Awareness Week. According to the University of Arkansas, S.T.A.N.D. achieved better recognition and representation within university administration when they petitioned and were granted two permanent seats on the Associated Student Government. With these seats, they finally had more power, authority, and influence on behalf of the black student body. The Associated Student Government—still in operation today—gave a voice to the university's students and allocated funding for an array of services, events, and programs across campus. In the 1990s, S.T.A.N.D. underwent a second name change. They decided on the Black Student Association to better express their goals for unity and representation. B.S.A.—not to be confused with Boy Scouts of America—is still in operation to this day and continues to offer events and programs that promote unity and equity. While there is still much work to be done to fight against the inequities and racism the black community and other minority groups face, Black Americans for Democracy has come a long way since its founding. In 1968, a black student sent a letter to the Arkansas Traveler. They hoped to push towards actual representation while criticizing the white student body's complaints over the alleged overemphasis and coverage of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's assassination that same year. Little did that student know the incredible snowball effect that letter generated and how their one action continues to greatly influence the student body at the University of Arkansas. Sources “BAD Times Collection: A Digital Collection of the Black Americans for Democracy Newspapers.” Special Collections, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville, October 2015. http://digitalcollections.uark.edu/cdm/landingpage/collection/BADTimes “The BAD Times.” BAD Times, The, no. 2 (March 1, 1972). https://digitalcollections.uark.edu/digital/collection/BADTimes/id/10/rec/2 “The BAD Times.” BAD Times, The, no. 3 (March 1, 1972). https://jstor.org/stable/community.28033018. “The BAD Times.” BAD Times, The, no. 10 (September 10, 1974). https://digitalcollections.uark.edu/digital/collection/BADTimes/id/17/rec/10

Note from the writer: some historians refer to the artifacts described in this post as a "vessel" rather than a "jar." For continuity sake and for the benefit of my readers, I will only be using the term "jar." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Ancient Peru, the home of Machu Picchu. Within Ancient Peru lies countless works of art, ranging from functional to decorative and from traditional to colonial. While it may be common to think of the Inca people when discussing South American and specifically Peruvian history, the Inca empire was only one of the many diverse communities and peoples that thrived and disappeared in the years prior to and during the arrival of Spain in the 1500s. Fortunately, a plethora of pre-colonial South American works survived the Spanish empire. Among many of these civilizations, skilled artists and potters created jars of different shapes, sizes, and depictions. Some are more anthropocentric—meaning having a focus on human or humanoid features or figures—while others portray animals or creatures of folklore. Despite the diverse assortment of these jars, they all had one similar function—they created a whistling sound when tipping the jar. Indeed, the shape of the jars allow for the passage of air to be displaced via moving liquids, producing different whistling sounds. Traditionally among the Inca, these jars were double-chambered, as if two jars were separately created and then joined at the base and at the neck with a hollow handle that allowed for air displacement. Depending on the shape and size of the jar, the whistling sound produced different pitches and could control whether or not the liquid caused a warbling sound, imitating some forms of birdsong. Typically, the animals or figures matched the sounds emitting from the jars. If a portion of the pot depicted a wolf, it would generally imitate a howl; if it were a bird such as a kestrel, the whistle would be more high-pitched and would often warble. The video below provides visual and auditory examples of traditional Peruvian whistling jars—primarily of Inca fashion. While the Inca people certainly created their own variations of double-chambered whistling jars, much of the artifacts removed from archaeological sites originate from earlier civilizations, such as the Moche people (c. 100 C.E. - 800 C.E.). The Moche people—a cluster of civilizations along the Peruvian coast—were incredibly skilled in metallurgy. They crafted works such as jewelry, spatulas, and knives—with several surviving pieces of jewelry made of gold. Despite these amazing skills in metallurgy, the Moche are more commonly remembered for their diverse assortment of whistling jars. While the Moche did not invent the whistling jar, they crafted a mass variety of these fascinating works. Some were produced in the famous double-chambered configuration while others were designed in a uniquely shaped single-chambered fashion. Civilizations and cultures that existed after the Moche definitely drew some inspiration from them and in some ways refined the whistling jar. The Inca people, for example, generally followed the double-chambered design, with the spout placed on one of the chambers instead of directly on a hollow handle. Modern whistling jars predominantly follow the Inca style. While there still exists some uncertainty as to which civilization created the first functioning whistling jars, some of the earliest whistling jars date as far back as 500 B.C.E. within a variety of ruins along the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. Historians and archaeologists claim that some jars discovered are even 3,000 years old, but some of these jars were not removed from archaeological sites in Peru or Ecuador. As a matter of fact, archaeologists found whistling jars as north as Mexico, with many uniquely designed and stylish works originating from Mayan artisans. As previously mentioned, the Moche and other cultures certainly had an impact on Inca culture and therefore their version of the whistling whistling jar. This same influence spread through trade with Mesoamerican cultures and civilizations, and the Maya people refined the whistling jar in their own ornate and unique style (as seen in the image below). The Metropolitan Museum of Art This Mayan whistling jar starkly contrasts their Peruvian counterparts as it does not depict and imitate an animal or humanoid person. Rather, it displays some sort of interaction between a Mayan man and a deity, perhaps a moment of displaying devotion to said deity. Regardless of what the original artist intended to display, its style and perhaps its intended use certainly differs greatly from South American whistling jars. The Peruvian whistling jar is truly a technological marvel. Its evolution and diverse array of styles throughout different cultures provides a glimpse into the development of material history within the Peruvian region of South America and within Mesoamerican cultures with whom they traded. The intended purpose or purposes of the whistling jar remains a mystery to historians—whether religious, artistic, traditional, or simply functional as either a household appliance or some sort of novelty item. Some whistling jars were discovered next to graves in ancient Peruvian ruins, while others were discovered in homes or public sectors. Despite historians' best efforts to learn more about the Peruvian whistling jar, we may never know their intended purposes. However, we can appreciate and marvel at the incredible craftsmanship and accuracy of their whistling imitations of animals and people. Sources: Ceramic Whistling Vessel. 11th-16th century. Ceramic, H. 7 x W. 4 in. (17.8 x 10.2 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://jstor.org/stable/community.18370031. Donnan, Christopher B. “MOCHE CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY.” Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology, no. 3 (1965): 115–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27977872. “Whistling Jar a Clue.” The Science News-Letter 59, no. 12 (1951): 190–190. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3928726. Santiago, Gonzalo Sánchez. “An Introduction to the Music Cultures of Ancient Oaxaca: Sound Artifacts in the Archaeological Record.” The World of Music 49, no. 2 (2007): 67–79. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41699765. Benson, Elizabeth P. “A Moche ‘Spatula.’” Metropolitan Museum Journal 18 (1983): 39–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/1512797. Stirrup Spout Bottle (Whistling Jar) with Anthropomorphic Head. Moche. Clay, 19.6 x 16.7 x 9 cm. Ethnologisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin; http://www.smb.museum/smb/home/index.php?lang=de; Provenance: Entered the museum 1894. https://jstor.org/stable/community.15720177. Steven Garrett and Daniel K. Stat. “Peruvian whistling bottles.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 62 (1977): 449–453. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.381507. "Whistling vessel." The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/310542. Accessed January 20, 2023. Whistling Jar. 200 B.C.-600 A.D. Pottery, paint, L. 17.6 cm.; W. 11 cm.; H. 18.6 cm.; Wt. 596 g. Whistling Jar [89.4.1718]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://jstor.org/stable/community.18678334.

Dorothea Lange, photographer. Destitute pea pickers in California. Mother of seven children. Age thirty-two. Nipomo, California. 1936. U.S. Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information. Prints & Photographs Division. In 1936, a photographer by the name of Dorothea Lange arrived in Nipomo, California. She worked for the Resettlement Administration, a government–formed agency aimed at bringing awareness and aid to struggling farmers during the Great Depression. Lange stopped in a migrant camp and, as if "drawn by a magnet," made her way over to a young mother and her children. With permission, Lange captured exposures of these "destitute pea pickers," each shot progressively getting closer to her subjects. Not long after parting ways with the mother and children, Lange got to work publishing her photos through newspapers. The Migrant Mother within Lange's photographs resonated so strongly with the American people that both Lange and the Migrant Mother became national icons. Lange went on to achieve stardom and continue her photography career, but none of her subsequent works reached the national status of the Migrant Mother. This story isn't about Dorothea Lange. America associates Lange with her works during the Great Depression, especially the Migrant Mother collection. Everyone knew (and knows) the face of the Migrant Mother, but virtually nobody knew her name. Florence In 1936, a Cherokee migrant by the name of Florence Leona Owens was down on her luck and arrived in a migrant camp in Nipomo, California. Florence was a headstrong, independent woman from Oklahoma. Her husband, Cleo Owens, passed away a few years prior. Her family had offered to help and take in her six—which by 1936 she had seven—children after his passing. She only left her newborn child in her family's care and took the other five with her to California. "I'd hit that... field before daylight and stay there that got so dark I couldn't see. And I didn't even weigh a hundred pounds. I used to fill up a twelve-pound cotton, twelve-foot cotton sack. I couldn't lift 'em, I'd have to drag 'em to the scales halfway across the field." A cold-snap forced her family to seek work elsewhere, and unfortunately another cold-snap killed many crops in Nipomo. To make matters worse, her car broke down as she arrived at the camp. During this time in her life, Florence and her children had been travelling with a man named Jim Hill and his son Troy. Jim was the new husband and father to Florence and her children during their travels and time together. Years later she would part ways with Jim and marry a man named George Thompson. Jim was working on repairing the family car when Troy put a screwdriver through the radiator—an unforeseen accident. The already struggling family would now have to experience more financial hardship as a replacement radiator would need to be found and purchased. Jim took his son with him to walk to the closest auto shop. Florence and her children were moved to a different camp just a mile or two from where she left their car. She set up her tent at the entrance of the new camp, hoping that Jim and Troy would see her more easily on their return. At this point all that she could do was wait. Migrant agricultural worker's family. Seven hungry children. Mother aged thirty-two. Father is native Californian. Nipomo, California. 1936. U.S. Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information. Prints & Photographs Division. A shiny car pulled up to the camp, quite the contrast to its surroundings. A young woman with a large and expensive camera stepped out of the car and began taking photographs of Florence and her family. The woman would take a few steps closer with each shot until she stood a mere few feet away from them. After seeming content with her shots, she exchanged a few words with Florence. Dorothea Lange, a photographer working for the Resettlement Administration. Florence never gave her name, but in the few words they exchanged she mentioned that she was thirty-two years old and was a mother of seven children. As Florence remembers it (through Roger Sprague's retelling), Lange made a promise that she wouldn't publish her photographs and was simply "documenting the plight of the migrant worker." Lange stepped back into the car and left without taking another photo. Unbeknownst to Florence, Lange broke her promise and published her photograph in a newspaper. Just a mere few days after Lange's visit, trucks filled with food and supplies arrived at migrant camps in Nipomo. New clothes were given to residents in the farmers camps, and some cars were repaired. Florence, Jim, and their children had left before the arrival of these supplies. Not only did they miss the opportunity for them and their children to be fed, Florence also never received any recognition nor financial compensation for her face making the front page. Dorothea Lange continued her path to stardom while Florence continued to struggle to make ends meet. Florence through the years took many odd jobs to feed her children. "I worked in hospitals, I tend bar, I cooked, I worked in the field... I done a little bit of everything to make a living for my kids." Soon her children were old enough to take on their own jobs and therefore bring in more money for the family. Yet Florence never received a cent from Dorothea Lange. She continued as she did, unable to gain a comfortable life for herself and her children for many years. The Mother of America Despite what appears as tragic story of an Oklahoma-born mother instead has an inspiring effect on others that Florence never knew during her entire lifetime. Her face was to America as the Statue of Liberty is to the rest of the world—a cherished icon. The Statue of Liberty was the face of America, while Florence became the mother of America. Despite the loss of her first husband and losing a stable life in Oklahoma, she worked countless days and nights for her children. For many, especially Florence herself, she was a beacon of hope. "If I'd ever lost hope, I never made it." Florence as the Migrant Mother transcended the barriers of race, ethnicity, religion, and gender. Her significance held and still holds different meanings to people from different backgrounds, but all regard her as a true American. Some thirty or so years after Florence's encounter with Lange, one of her grandchildren found her picture in a fellow G.I.'s tent. Her skin was printed in such a way to make her appear to be a black woman. The G.I. that owned the picture, who was a black man, always believed that she was black and never knew otherwise. "Florence and her story had not yet been found," said Bob Dotson in American Story. "But that frozen moment of her life—that picture—writes its own story in each of us." While most Americans to this day don't recognize the name Florence nor her story, her influence as the Migrant Mother continues to impact the lives of countless Americans. Florence passed away in 1983 surrounded by her children and grandchildren. On her gravestone, the following words were engraved: "Migrant Mother: a legend of the strength of American motherhood." Memorial page for Florence Leona Christie Thompson (1 Sep 1903–16 Sep 1983). Find a Grave. Memorial ID 21325119. accessed 25 August 2022. Sources: Dorothea Lange's "Migrant Mother" Photographs in the Farm Security Administration Collection. 2019. Library of Congress. Guides. Roger Sprague. "The Migrant Mother: The story as told by her Grandson." 2004. Web Archive. https://web.archive.org/web/20041011003814/http://migrantgrandson.com/the.htm Bob Dotson. "Migrant Mother Update - American Story with Bob Dotson." 1983. YouTube. accessed 25 August 2022. (Picture sources listed under each picture)

Photograph of Althea Gibson c. 1956, Library of Congress Welcome to Niche History, our passion project! Created by Braden Jones, this blog aims to educate both historians and non-historians alike through stories from all over the world. Our mission is to create an educational blog that shows why history as a discipline is worth the attention and study of scholars and laymen alike. These posts may range from discussing the invention of aspartame to the re-discovery of Lady Dai's tomb. Every story may include a connection to a larger and more well-known event or moment in history, but every post objectively will focus on smaller, less-known stories. We are here to break the top-down narratives of many history textbooks and classes to focus on people, not dates or numbers. As a disclaimer, these posts are not peer-reviewed and very well may include mistakes or misinterpretations of primary and/or secondary sources. That being said, each and every post will include sources to increase its own personal credibility. We look forward to sharing niche history with you, keep your eyes peeled for blog posts coming soon!